Source-checked research collection

Selected papers and research

This is a non-exhaustive public selection of 15 publications spanning 2006 to 2026. It begins with the research programme established by Robert Clarke and Dr Thomas Lancaster, then shows how the wider field has tested, challenged and extended the problem.

The founding Clarke–Lancaster programme

The public list below contains a concise starting set. These additional joint milestones make the continuity of the originating programme explicit.

From definition to detection

The 2006 paper named and measured the problem. The 2007 six-stage process then gave educators a systematic investigative workflow.

2006 primary paper · 2007 DOI

From phenomenon to market

Joint work in 2008 and 2013 developed the conceptual and commercial analysis of contract cheating.

2008 DOI · 2013 DOI

From individual cases to disciplinary reach

Their 2014 observational study examined the range and extent of courses represented on agency websites.

2014 DOI

From evidence to institutional practice

Their 2016 handbook chapter consolidated definitions, service types, detection challenges, prevention and practical response.

2016 DOI

A chronological starting selection

  1. Clarke, R., & Lancaster, T. (2006, June 19–21). Eliminating the successor to plagiarism? Identifying the usage of contract cheating sites [Conference paper]. 2nd International Plagiarism Conference, Gateshead/Newcastle, United Kingdom.

    Primary paper record · no publisher DOI assigned

  2. Clarke, R., & Lancaster, T. (2007). Establishing a systematic six-stage process for detecting contract cheating. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Applications (pp. 342–347). IEEE.

    https://doi.org/10.1109/ICPCA.2007.4365466

  3. Walker, M., & Townley, C. (2012). Contract cheating: A new challenge for academic honesty? Journal of Academic Ethics, 10(1), 27–44.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-012-9150-y

  4. Rigby, D., Burton, M., Balcombe, K., Bateman, I., & Mulatu, A. (2015). Contract cheating and the market in essays. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 111, 23–37.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.12.019

  5. Curtis, G. J., & Clare, J. (2017). How prevalent is contract cheating and to what extent are students repeat offenders? Journal of Academic Ethics, 15(2), 115–124.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-017-9278-x

  6. Draper, M. J., & Newton, P. M. (2017). A legal approach to tackling contract cheating? International Journal for Educational Integrity, 13, Article 11.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-017-0022-5

  7. Newton, P. M. (2018). How common is commercial contract cheating in higher education and is it increasing? A systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 3, Article 67.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00067

  8. Bretag, T., Harper, R., Burton, M., Ellis, C., Newton, P. M., Rozenberg, P., Saddiqui, S., & van Haeringen, K. (2019). Contract cheating: A survey of Australian university students. Studies in Higher Education, 44(11), 1837–1856.

    https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1462788

  9. Bretag, T., Harper, R., Burton, M., Ellis, C., Newton, P. M., van Haeringen, K., Saddiqui, S., & Rozenberg, P. (2019). Contract cheating and assessment design: Exploring the relationship. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(5), 676–691.

    https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1527892

  10. Amigud, A., & Lancaster, T. (2019). 246 reasons to cheat: An analysis of students’ reasons for seeking to outsource academic work. Computers & Education, 134, 98–107.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.01.017

  11. Stoesz, B. M., Eaton, S. E., Miron, J., & Thacker, E. J. (2019). Academic integrity and contract cheating policy analysis of colleges in Ontario, Canada. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 15, Article 4.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-019-0042-4

  12. Lancaster, T., & Cotarlan, C. (2021). Contract cheating by STEM students through a file sharing website: A COVID-19 pandemic perspective. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 17, Article 3.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-021-00070-0

  13. Lancaster, T., Draper, M., Dann, S., Crockett, R., & Glendinning, I. (2025). Developing policies to address historic contract cheating and misuse of generative artificial intelligence. Journal of Academic Writing, 15(S1), 1–13.

    https://doi.org/10.18552/joaw.v15iS1.1057

  14. Liyanagamage, N., Asylguzhina, E., Vel, P., Khan, Z. R., Fernando, M., & Lancaster, T. (2025). Methodological and ethical approaches to studying contract cheating: A systematic literature review. Journal of Academic Ethics, 23, 1025–1051.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-025-09599-y

  15. Comas Forgas, R., Vallespir Adillón, M., Lancaster, T., & Mainardes, J. (2026). Contract cheating websites in Spain (2019–2024): Web traffic trends during COVID-19 and the rise of generative AI. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 22, Article 10.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-026-00221-1

Editorial scope

This is a carefully checked public shortlist, not a ranking or a complete bibliography. A larger working corpus is maintained separately so that future additions can be verified, contextualised and released deliberately rather than copied wholesale into the site.

Frequently asked questions

Is this a complete bibliography of contract cheating research?

No. It is a public starting selection of 15 source-checked publications. Many more relevant papers exist, including work that predates the term and research in adjacent areas.

Why does the 2006 origin paper have no DOI?

No publisher DOI has been located or assigned for the conference paper. The number sometimes shown as 10.1.1.120.5440 is a CiteSeerX repository identifier, not a DOI, so it is not presented as one here.

Does the latest research show that contract cheating has disappeared because of generative AI?

No. Recent work shows changes in website traffic and service models, but does not establish that academic outsourcing has ended. Human providers, file-sharing, messaging platforms and AI-assisted workflows can overlap.

How to cite this page

Suggested citation:

ContractCheating.com. (2026). Selected papers and research. https://contractcheating.com/key-papers